Homosexuality In The Bible – A Linguistic and Historical Analysis

Key Takeaways

• The Bible never mentions ‘homosexuality’ as a sexual orientation, instead addressing specific same-sex acts within ancient cultural contexts that differ significantly from modern understanding.
• Biblical passages often cited in homosexuality debates (like Leviticus 18:22 and Romans 1:26-27) were written without the concept of sexual orientation and primarily addressed exploitative practices common in ancient cultures.
• Jesus never directly addressed homosexuality in any of the four Gospels, despite how central the issue has become in contemporary Christian discourse.
• The original Hebrew and Greek terms translated as ‘homosexuality’ in modern Bibles (like ‘arsenokoitai’ and ‘malakoi’) have contested meanings and may refer to specific exploitative behaviors rather than committed relationships.
• Christian denominations differ significantly in their interpretations, with traditional views emphasizing biblical prohibitions as timeless moral principles and affirming views contextualizing them as culturally-specific regulations.

What does the Bible say about homosexuality?

Here’s what’s wild: the Bible never mentions “homosexuality” as we understand it today. The very concept, a sexual orientation toward persons of the same gender, simply didn’t exist in the biblical world. The term “homosexuality” wasn’t coined until the late 19th century, and the notion of sexual orientation as an identity category would have been foreign to ancient Hebrew and Greco-Roman cultures.

Clarifying same-sex attraction, same-sex relationships, and sex relationships biblically

When we open the pages of Scripture looking for what it says about “homosexuality,” we’re already asking a question the biblical authors weren’t equipped to answer. The Hebrew Bible (what Christians call the Old Testament) and the Greek New Testament don’t address sexual orientation but rather specific sexual acts between people of the same gender, primarily between males.

The biblical writers knew nothing of sexual orientation as an inherent aspect of human identity. What they did know were specific forms of same-sex sexual intercourse practiced in their cultural contexts:

• Exploitation of slaves and young boys (common in Roman culture)
• Same-sex acts in pagan worship contexts
• Male prostitution (often associated with temple practices)
• Male-male intercourse perceived as diminishing the passive partner’s social status
• Sexual domination used to humiliate conquered enemies

Notably absent from this list: consensual same-sex relationships between equals as understood in contemporary contexts.

Why defining biblical homosexuality through ancient texts is controversial

The ancient Hebrew word מִשְׁכָּב זָכָר (mishkab zachar) in Leviticus literally translates to “lying of/with a male.” The Greek terms in the New Testament, ἀρσενοκοῖται (arsenokoitai) and μαλακοὶ (malakoi), are notoriously difficult to translate precisely. Arsenokoitai appears to be a compound word possibly derived from the Septuagint’s (Greek Old Testament) translation of Leviticus, while malakoi literally means “soft ones”, a term with broad applications beyond sexuality.

Contemporary translations that simply insert the word “homosexuality” into these texts perform a linguistic anachronism, imposing a modern category onto ancient concepts. This is controversial not merely for theological reasons but for basic linguistic and historical accuracy.

Differences between modern identity and ancient sexual conduct

The fundamental disconnect between biblical discussions and modern debates centers on identity versus behavior. The Bible addresses specific sexual acts without any concept of orientation or identity. In the ancient world, sexual activity was generally understood through frameworks of:

• Active versus passive roles (with implications for social status)
• Procreative potential
• Ritual purity
• Patriarchal honor systems
• Property considerations
• Family alliance maintenance

This stands in stark contrast to our contemporary understanding of sexual orientation as an intrinsic aspect of human identity, separate from specific sexual acts. The Lord Jesus Christ never addressed homosexual orientation, though Paul does address certain forms of homosexual intercourse in his epistles. Even there, the apostle Paul’s concerns emerge from a specific cultural and theological context that requires careful analysis.

Old Testament context and key passages

The Hebrew Bible contains remarkably few direct references to same-sex relations, a striking fact given how central the issue has become in some contemporary Christian discourse. In a collection spanning thousands of pages addressing everything from agricultural practices to temple architecture, explicit mentions of same-sex behavior appear in only a handful of texts.

What does Leviticus 18:22 mean in its original context?

The most direct prohibition appears in Leviticus 18:22: “You shall not lie with a male as with a woman: it is an abomination (תּוֹעֵבָה, to’ebah).” This is reinforced in Leviticus 20:13, which prescribes capital punishment for men who “lie with a male as with a woman.”

Here’s what’s crucial to understand: these prohibitions appear within the Holiness Code (Leviticus 17-26), a collection of laws distinguishing Israel from surrounding nations. The Hebrew word translated “abomination” (to’ebah) typically denotes ritual impurity or ethnic boundary violations rather than universal moral prohibitions. The same term describes forbidden foods and improper worship practices.

The specific formulation “as with a woman” (מִשְׁכְּבֵי אִשָּׁה, mishkebei ishah) literally means “lyings of a woman” and may point to penetrative intercourse specifically rather than all forms of same-sex intimacy. Some scholars suggest the prohibition specifically targets male-male incest or penetrative acts that violated ancient patriarchal gender boundaries.

The Oxford University Press Hebrew Bible commentary notes that ancient Near Eastern prohibitions on male-male sex often focused on issues of gender hierarchy and social roles rather than sexual desire itself. A man taking a “female role” in intercourse violated the gender-stratified social order, a concern quite different from modern objections to homosexual relationships.

Was Sodom’s sin really about same-sex relationships?

The story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19) has given us the term “sodomy,” yet remarkably, homosexual desire is not explicitly identified as the city’s sin. The narrative depicts attempted gang rape of male visitors by “all the men of Sodom, both young and old” (Genesis 19:4), a scenario better understood as an act of violent domination and xenophobic hostility than an expression of homosexual orientation.

Elsewhere in Scripture, when the sin of Sodom is referenced, homosexuality is not mentioned. Ezekiel 16:49-50 states: “This was the guilt of your sister Sodom: she and her daughters had pride, excess of food, and prosperous ease, but did not aid the poor and needy.” Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Jesus himself reference Sodom as examples of general wickedness, inhospitality, and unbelief, not specifically sexual sin.

(In the margin of one medieval manuscript containing Ezekiel 16, a scribe noted: “Strange that when our Lord spoke of Sodom’s sin through His prophet, He mentioned not what we preach most about.” Even ancient copyists noticed this disconnect.)

Ritual impurity versus moral condemnation in Old Testament laws

The Levitical prohibitions exist alongside numerous other laws Christians no longer observe, restrictions on mixed fabrics, shellfish consumption, and tattoos. This raises questions about how these prohibitions function in Christian ethics. Do they represent universal moral principles or culturally-specific purity regulations?

The answer isn’t simple. Some prohibitions in Leviticus clearly address ritual purity (menstruation, certain foods), while others involve moral issues most Christians still affirm (incest prohibitions, adultery). The challenge lies in determining which category same-sex prohibitions fall into.

Significantly, these prohibitions appear focused exclusively on male-male sexual intercourse. Female same-sex relations receive no explicit mention in the Torah, supporting the theory that these laws address patriarchal concerns about male status and proper gender roles rather than sexual desire itself.

The Hebrew Bible presents a complex picture that resists simple application to contemporary questions about consensual same-sex relationships. When Jesus himself addressed Old Testament law, he emphasized its moral heart over ritual observance, suggesting any contemporary application requires careful discernment of what honors God rather than mere literalism.

How the New Testament addresses homosexuality

The New Testament contains several passages relevant to discussions of homosexuality, primarily in Pauline literature. These texts emerge from specific cultural contexts and employ terminology that presents translation challenges, challenges that have profound implications for how we understand their application today.

What Romans, Corinthians, and Timothy actually say

The most extensive New Testament discussion appears in Romans 1:26-27, where Paul writes that “women exchanged natural relations for unnatural ones,” and “men abandoned natural relations with women and were inflamed with lust for one another. Men committed shameless acts with other men…”

The Greek phrase παρὰ φύσιν (para physin), translated “unnatural,” literally means “against nature” or “beyond nature.” In other early Christian literature and Greco-Roman texts, this phrase often denoted not a universal moral norm but deviation from culturally-expected gender roles or typical behaviors. Paul uses the same phrase elsewhere to describe God’s grafting of Gentiles into Israel’s covenant (Romans 11:24), hardly a moral condemnation.

In 1 Corinthians 6:9-10 and 1 Timothy 1:9-10, Paul lists behaviors inconsistent with God’s kingdom and sound doctrine. These lists include two Greek terms often interpreted as referring to homosexual behavior: μαλακοὶ (malakoi) and ἀρσενοκοῖται (arsenokoitai).

Malakoi literally means “soft ones” and in various ancient contexts could refer to moral weakness, effeminacy, or men who took passive roles in sexual intercourse. Arsenokoitai appears to be a compound word derived from “male” and “bed/lying,” possibly echoing the Septuagint’s translation of Leviticus 18:22. Because arsenokoitai appears nowhere in earlier Greek literature, its precise meaning remains contested.

Some scholars believe these terms targeted exploitative practices common in Roman culture, adult males using male prostitutes, slaves, or young boys, rather than consensual same-sex relationships. Others see them as broader prohibitions of male homosexual activity. The linguistic evidence alone cannot definitively settle these interpretive questions.

Where did Jesus talk about homosexuality?

What if I told you Jesus never directly addressed homosexuality? This striking silence runs counter to how central the issue has become in some Christian circles. In all four Gospels, Christ Jesus says nothing explicit about same-sex relations.

Jesus does affirm the creation narrative of male and female (Matthew 19:4-6), which some interpret as implicit endorsement of exclusively heterosexual unions. Yet he makes this reference in a discussion about divorce, not homosexuality. Jesus also praises a centurion who expresses concern for his παῖς (pais), a term that could mean “servant” or “young male lover” in Roman culture, without commenting on their relationship (Matthew 8:5-13).

When Jesus lists sexual sins, he mentions porneia (sexual immorality), moicheia (adultery), and aselgeia (licentiousness), but nothing specifically addressing homosexual activity. The Holy Spirit did not apparently inspire the Gospel writers to record explicit teachings from Jesus on this subject.

What the New Testament writers knew about same-sex relationships

Paul and other New Testament writers lived in a Greco-Roman world where specific forms of homosexual behavior were visible and sometimes accepted, including:

1. Pederasty: Relationships between adult men and adolescent boys
2. Master-slave sexual relations
3. Male prostitution
4. Sexual domination of social inferiors

Notably absent from this list: committed, consensual relationships between adult equals. While some evidence suggests such relationships existed in the ancient world, they were not the predominant form of same-sex behavior known to biblical writers.

The apostle Paul, educated in both Jewish and Greco-Roman contexts, would have been familiar with these practices. His condemnations of homosexual behavior likely targeted the exploitative and hierarchical forms he observed, raising questions about whether he addressed the modern concept of committed same-sex relationships at all.

Early Christian movement away from pagan sexual ethics emphasized consent, mutuality, and commitment, values that actually align with contemporary affirming approaches to same-sex relationships. Understanding what the New Testament writers knew about homosexual conduct helps us distinguish between their condemnation of exploitative practices and contemporary questions about committed relationships.

Doctrinal divisions among Christian denominations

Christian churches hold sharply divergent interpretations of biblical passages addressing same-sex relations. These differences reflect not only varying approaches to biblical interpretation but also differing understandings of how Scripture functions as authority.

Traditional vs. affirming interpretations of same-sex attraction

Traditional interpretations generally maintain that Scripture prohibits all homosexual conduct while distinguishing between homosexual orientation (not itself sinful) and homosexual behavior (considered sinful). From this perspective, Christians experiencing same-sex attraction are called to celibacy or possibly heterosexual marriage.

This view typically:

• Treats biblical prohibitions as timeless moral principles rather than culturally-specific regulations
• Emphasizes the male-female complementarity in creation narratives
• Sees homosexual behavior as inherently contrary to God’s design for human sexuality
• Distinguishes between sinful desires and sinful actions

Affirming interpretations argue that Scripture’s prohibitions target specific exploitative or idolatrous practices rather than committed same-sex relationships as understood today. From this view, the biblical writers had no concept of sexual orientation and addressed behaviors qualitatively different from modern same-sex relationships.

This approach typically:

• Emphasizes historical and cultural context of biblical prohibitions
• Focuses on biblical themes of love, justice, and inclusion
• Argues that faithful, monogamous same-sex relationships fulfill rather than violate scriptural ethics
• Compares reinterpretation on this issue to shifted understandings on slavery or women’s roles

How evangelical, Catholic, and progressive churches differ on sex relationships

Evangelical denominations predominantly maintain that homosexual behavior contradicts biblical teaching, though with varying pastoral approaches. Organizations like the Southern Baptist Convention and the Presbyterian Church in America hold that homosexual practice is incompatible with Christian discipleship while calling for compassionate ministry to those experiencing same-sex attraction.

The Roman Catholic Church distinguishes between homosexual orientation (considered “objectively disordered” but not sinful) and homosexual acts (deemed “intrinsically disordered”). Catholic teaching calls those with homosexual orientation to chastity while affirming their dignity as persons.

Mainline Protestant denominations like the Episcopal Church, Presbyterian Church (USA), and Evangelical Lutheran Church in America have moved toward affirming positions, allowing same-sex marriage and ordination of non-celibate gay clergy. The United Methodist Church is currently navigating potential division over these issues.

Theological implications of reinterpreting homosexuality in the Bible

Debates over same-sex relationships raise profound questions about biblical authority, hermeneutics (interpretive methods), and theology. How Christians understand these issues connects to larger questions about:

1. Biblical interpretation: Does faithful interpretation require understanding the historical and cultural context of texts, or primarily applying their literal meaning?
2. Moral reasoning: How do Christians distinguish between culturally-specific biblical instructions and universal moral principles? What role do natural law, church tradition, and contemporary experience play alongside Scripture?
3. Anthropology: What constitutes human flourishing and sexual wholeness considering both created nature and fallen existence?
4. Ecclesiology: How do churches maintain unity amid disagreement on significant ethical issues?

After decades studying these texts in their original languages, I’ve observed that simplistic appeals to “what the Bible says” often fail to acknowledge the complex interpretive work all Christians necessarily undertake. Both traditional and affirming approaches involve interpretation, not just reading.

Christ Jesus prayed for unity among his followers (John 17:20-23), yet these questions have become deeply divisive. Finding ways to honor God through respectful dialogue across differences remains an essential Christian calling, whatever position one holds on these contested questions.

Unspoken perspectives and overlooked angles

Beyond the explicit passages frequently cited in debates about homosexuality, Scripture contains other narratives and teachings that inform how we approach these questions. These “unspoken perspectives” often receive less attention but deserve consideration in forming a comprehensive biblical understanding.

Was David and Jonathan’s relationship strictly platonic?

The Hebrew Bible describes the relationship between David and Jonathan in emotionally intense terms. After Jonathan’s death, David laments: “Your love for me was wonderful, surpassing the love of women” (2 Samuel 1:26). Their covenant relationship includes Jonathan “loving him as his own soul” (1 Samuel 18:1-3) and the two men kissing as they wept together (1 Samuel 20:41).

These passages have generated centuries of interpretive debate. The mainstream Jewish and Christian tradition has understood this as profound but non-sexual friendship. But, some scholars note the Hebrew terminology and emotional intensity parallel language used elsewhere for romantic relationships.

The text itself never explicitly describes sexual relations between David and Jonathan, making definitive claims impossible. Yet their deep covenant bond, transcending political rivalry and familial loyalty, demonstrates profound same-sex attachment the biblical narrator presents positively, whatever its precise nature.

The role of eunuchs and outsiders in early Christian inclusion

What if I told you Jesus specifically affirmed those who did not fit into typical sexual and gender categories? In Matthew 19:12, Christ speaks of different types of eunuchs, including those “born that way” and those who “make themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom.” Rather than condemning these sexual minorities, Jesus acknowledges them without judgment.

The early Christian movement demonstrated remarkable inclusivity toward those considered sexual outsiders in ancient culture. In Acts 8, Philip baptizes an Ethiopian eunuch, someone who would have been excluded from full participation in Temple worship under Deuteronomic law (Deuteronomy 23:1). This account exemplifies how the early church, guided by the Holy Spirit, moved toward greater inclusion rather than maintaining rigid boundaries.

The apostle Paul declares that in Christ Jesus, “There is neither Jew nor Greek, neither slave nor free, neither male nor female” (Galatians 3:28). This radical dissolution of identity categories that determined social status in the ancient world suggests an inclusive trajectory that challenges rigid applications of gender and sexual norms.

What does silence on same-sex in many scriptures suggest?

Perhaps the most overlooked aspect of the biblical witness on homosexuality is its relative silence. In Scripture’s vast landscape addressing human nature, sexual desire, and ethical behavior, explicit references to same-sex relations appear in only a handful of passages. Neither the prophets nor Jesus himself chose to emphasize this issue.

This comparative silence becomes particularly striking when contrasted with abundant biblical teachings on economic justice, care for the vulnerable, truthfulness, and reconciliation. The biblical writers devote exponentially more attention to wealth, poverty, and social justice than to homosexual behavior.

Even the apostle Paul, who includes homosexual acts in several vice lists, speaks far more extensively about divisions in the church, proper use of wealth, and ethnic reconciliation. His most extensive sexual ethics discussions focus on heterosexual marriage and celibacy rather than homosexual relationships.

Scriptural silence should not be mistaken for moral neutrality or approval. But, the relatively minimal attention to homosexual behavior suggests it may not hold the central importance some contemporary theological discussions assign it.

As a manuscript scholar who has spent decades with these texts, I find this disproportionate modern focus on a handful of verses remarkable, particularly when Scripture speaks with such clarity and frequency about many other ethical matters that receive comparatively little attention in contemporary theological debates.

Common misconceptions and interpretation mistakes

Biblical interpretation requires careful attention to language, context, and the vast differences between ancient and modern cultures. Here are critical mistakes commonly made when interpreting biblical passages about same-sex relations.

Assuming all biblical references apply to modern same-sex relationships

Perhaps the most fundamental error in these discussions is assuming biblical authors addressed the same phenomenon we call “homosexuality” today. When Paul condemned certain same-sex acts in Roman culture, he witnessed a society where sexual relations typically occurred within rigid power hierarchies: citizen/slave, adult/youth, patron/client.

The concept of a committed, consensual relationship between adults with homosexual orientation simply wasn’t the subject of biblical prohibitions because such relationships weren’t the cultural reference point. While some scholars argue that committed same-sex relationships existed in the ancient world, these were not the predominant pattern biblical authors would have encountered.

This isn’t to say Scripture has nothing relevant to say about contemporary same-sex relationships, but rather that applying ancient texts to modern questions requires careful interpretive work, not simple citation.

Treating homosexuality in the Bible as a single concept across books

The Bible isn’t a single book but a diverse collection written across centuries in different languages, cultures, and contexts. The Levitical prohibitions emerge from a priestly purity code concerned with Israel’s distinctive identity. Paul’s comments in Romans appear in a broader argument about Gentile inclusion and idolatry. The vice lists in Corinthians and Timothy address specific church situations in particular Greco-Roman cities.

Treating these diverse texts as a unified “biblical teaching on homosexuality” flattens their distinct concerns and contexts. Each text must be understood within its own literary and historical framework before responsible application can occur.

Also, translation decisions matter enormously. The Greek word arsenokoitai in 1 Corinthians 6:9, often translated “men who practice homosexuality” (ESV) or “homosexual offenders” (NIV), doesn’t appear in any known Greek text before Paul’s usage. Its precise meaning remains debated among lexicographers. Earlier English translations rendered it variously as “abusers of themselves with mankind” (KJV) or “sexual perverts” (RSV), reflecting the interpretive challenges this rare term presents.

Ignoring the difference between attraction and behavior in scriptural interpretation

Modern understandings distinguish between homosexual orientation (a persistent pattern of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction) and homosexual behavior (specific sexual acts). This distinction was unavailable to biblical authors, who addressed behaviors without a concept of sexual orientation.

When Scripture condemns certain homosexual acts, it does not address the contemporary question of homosexual orientation. The biblical authors had no framework for understanding orientation as an enduring aspect of human identity rather than a chosen behavior.

This distinction matters enormously for pastoral application. Traditional approaches that acknowledge orientation while prohibiting behavior rely on categories the biblical authors themselves did not employ, a fact that should prompt humility in application.

Biblical terms like “sexual immorality” (porneia) and “unnatural” (para physin) had specific contextual meanings in their ancient settings that don’t map neatly onto contemporary categories. Porneia typically referred to sexual violations within a Jewish moral framework, while para physin often indicated behaviors contrary to social expectations or typical patterns rather than moral absolutes.

All this suggests that simplistic appeals to “what the Bible says” about homosexuality often involve significant interpretive assumptions that merit acknowledgment. Whatever position one holds on these contested questions, intellectual honesty requires recognizing that all readers, traditional and affirming alike, necessarily interpret rather than simply read these ancient texts.

FAQ

Where did Jesus talk about homosexuality?

Jesus never directly addresses homosexuality or same-sex relationships in any of the four Gospels. This absence is significant given how central the issue has become in some contemporary Christian discourse. When Christ Jesus discusses sexual ethics, he addresses divorce, adultery, and “sexual immorality” (porneia) broadly, but makes no explicit mention of same-sex relations.

Some theological traditions suggest Jesus implicitly addressed homosexuality when affirming the creation narrative of male and female in Matthew 19:4-6. But, this passage occurs in a discussion about divorce, not homosexuality specifically. Jesus’s silence on the topic has been interpreted variously, some see it as implicit disapproval of anything deviating from the male-female creation pattern, while others suggest the absence reflects the relative unimportance of the issue compared to matters Jesus did emphasize repeatedly (economic justice, religious hypocrisy, etc.).

What are the three unforgivable sins in the Bible?

Contrary to some popular teaching, the Bible does not list “homosexuality” among any “unforgivable sins.” In fact, Scripture identifies only one explicitly unforgivable sin: blasphemy against the Holy Spirit (Mark 3:28-29, Matthew 12:31-32, Luke 12:10). Jesus states, “Truly I tell you, people will be forgiven for all sins and whatever blasphemies they utter: but whoever blasphemes against the Holy Spirit can never have forgiveness, but is guilty of an eternal sin.”

The precise meaning of “blasphemy against the Holy Spirit” has been debated through church history, but most interpretations center on persistent, willful rejection of God’s saving work. Neither homosexual orientation nor homosexual behavior is described as unforgivable or set apart from other sins in terms of severity.

In 1 Corinthians 6:9-11, after listing various sinful behaviors (including certain homosexual acts), Paul explicitly states that some Corinthian Christians had practiced these behaviors before experiencing transformation: “And such were some of you. But you were washed, you were sanctified, you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and by the Spirit of our God.”

How many times is homosexuality mentioned in the Bible?

Direct references to homosexual behavior appear in approximately 6-7 passages across the entire Bible, depending on how one interprets certain ambiguous texts. These include:

• Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13 (prohibitions against men lying with men)
• Romans 1:26-27 (Paul’s discussion of same-sex acts among gentiles)
• 1 Corinthians 6:9 and 1 Timothy 1:10 (vice lists including terms sometimes translated as referring to homosexual acts)
• Possibly Genesis 19 (Sodom and Gomorrah) and Judges 19 (though these passages more directly address sexual violence rather than consensual relations)

It’s worth noting that homosexual behavior receives significantly less biblical attention than many other ethical issues like economic justice, truthfulness, proper use of wealth, and care for marginalized people. The relatively few explicit mentions appear primarily in specific legal codes or vice lists rather than as major themes addressed throughout Scripture.

What does Leviticus 18 verse 22 mean?

Leviticus 18:22 states: “You shall not lie with a male as with a woman: it is an abomination.” This verse appears within the Holiness Code, a set of laws distinguishing Israel from surrounding nations.

The Hebrew phrase מִשְׁכְּבֵי אִשָּׁה (mishkebei ishah), translated “as with a woman,” literally means “lyings of a woman” and likely refers specifically to male-male penetrative intercourse. The prohibition focuses exclusively on male same-sex acts: female same-sex relations are not mentioned in the Levitical codes.

The term translated “abomination” (תּוֹעֵבָה, to’ebah) typically denotes violations of ritual purity or cultural boundaries rather than universal moral prohibitions. The same term describes forbidden foods and improper worship practices elsewhere in Leviticus.

Different interpretive traditions understand this verse variously:

1. Traditional interpretation: The verse prohibits all male homosexual acts as contrary to God’s created order.
2. Ritual purity interpretation: The prohibition addresses ritual impurity concerns specific to ancient Israel rather than universal moral principles.
3. Cultural distinctiveness interpretation: The law distinguished Israelites from surrounding cultures where male-male intercourse occurred in pagan religious contexts.
4. Gender hierarchy interpretation: The prohibition protected the social order by preventing men from being treated “as women” (reducing their status in a patriarchal society).
5. Limited scope interpretation: The prohibition specifically targets certain forms of male-male intercourse (possibly penetrative acts) rather than all same-sex intimacy.

The verse’s meaning and contemporary application remain deeply contested among biblical scholars, theological traditions, and Christian denominations. Westminster John Knox Press and Oxford University Press both publish respected biblical commentaries presenting multiple scholarly perspectives on this controversial text.